The presence of Christians in Egypt dates back to the birth of Christianity and continues to this day. Christians are estimated to comprise approximately 5% of Egypt’s population, spread relatively evenly across the nation. Alexandria, Egypt’s second-largest city in terms of population and economic significance, remains a historic center for Christianity globally.
Since the 1970s, Egyptian Christians have faced increasing instability, particularly due to threats of terrorism. Many have been forced to emigrate to safer regions, often in the West. However, like other communities with histories of persecution, Christians in Egypt have shown resilience, striving to regain influence in the politics of the North African country.
Beyond the Orthodox Copts
Egypt is home to diverse Christian communities, with the Coptic Orthodox Church being the most prominent. Established in the 1st century AD and based in Cairo, it is the largest Christian denomination in the Middle East. The term “Coptic” originates from the Greek word aigyptios (Egyptian), later adapted into Arabic as qibt. Today, the Coptic Orthodox Church asserts that 90% of its members reside in Egypt, while the rest form a diaspora in Africa, the Middle East, and Western nations such as the United States and the United Kingdom.
Copts, despite lacking any significant ethnic distinctions from the Muslim majority, emphasize their descent from Egypt’s ancient peoples. They also preserve the liturgical Coptic language, derived from ancient Egyptian, to differentiate themselves from Muslims who align with the Arab-Islamic world.
The Coptic Church is headed by its own pope, currently Patriarch Theodore II. Although Egypt’s other Christian groups do not recognize the Coptic pope’s spiritual authority, many rely on his leadership to protect their activities. Meanwhile, the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria also claims succession to the ancient Patriarchate of Alexandria. Backed by Russia, the Greek Orthodox community includes over 100,000 adherents, primarily of Greek and Syro-Lebanese descent. Since 2004, it has been led by Patriarch Theodore II, unrelated to the Coptic pope.
Catholicism also has a foothold in Egypt, dating back to the 4th century. While its influence is modest, the Roman Catholic Church initially served European merchants, particularly Italians, as well as some Egyptian converts. Although attempts were made during the Crusades to absorb the Coptic Church into Catholicism, a small Coptic Catholic community emerged, now numbering about 250,000 people.
The Evangelical Presbyterian Church is another Christian presence in Egypt. Introduced in the mid-19th century through missions and schools, it claims 250,000 parishioners today. Evangelicals have established institutions like the American University in Cairo, contributing to educational growth.
Competition Among Churches
Egypt’s Christian communities, while not in direct conflict, have competed to retain or expand their congregations. The Coptic Church has faced challenges from foreign-supported groups like the Greek Orthodox, Catholic, and Presbyterian churches. During colonization and the 20th century, missionary schools posed a particular threat, prompting the Coptic Church to redouble its efforts to maintain control over education and its membership base. Despite these challenges, the Coptic Church remains a cornerstone of Egyptian history and politics.
Christians in Egypt and Nation-Building
The English colonization of Egypt in 1882 galvanized both Christians and Muslims to reject foreign occupation and demand independence. This shared struggle fostered a sense of national unity rooted in Egypt’s ancient past, a movement later known as pharaohism. Prominent Copts, such as Prime Ministers Butros Ghali Pacha and Yusef Wahba Pacha, played vital roles in the nationalist movement, contributing to newspapers and other media to promote this message. The revolution of 1919, led by socialist Saad Zaglul and the Wafd Party, culminated in limited success, with Egypt gaining independence as a kingdom in 1922 while remaining under British influence.
Three decades later, the Free Officers Movement, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, initiated the 1952 revolution. The Copts supported this movement, which sought to oust British influence and King Farouk. During Nasser’s early years in power, national unity was emphasized, and the 1953 Constitution guaranteed freedom of belief. However, economic reforms, such as land redistribution and nationalization, disproportionately affected Christians, leading many to emigrate.
The Copts and Political Influence
Historically, Copts were integral to Egypt’s administration, holding significant wealth and occupying influential positions in professions like medicine and law. Under Nasser, the Coptic Pope Cyril VI emerged as a political ally, symbolizing solidarity between the state and the Coptic community. This collaboration was highlighted by the construction of a new cathedral in Cairo, partly funded by the government.
However, Nasser’s pan-Arabism alienated some Copts, who viewed themselves as descendants of Egypt’s ancient pharaohs rather than Arabs. His policies excluded Christians from high-ranking positions in government and academia, creating a divide between the state’s rhetoric of unity and its practices.
Tensions Under Sadat and Mubarak
Under Anwar el-Sadat’s presidency (1970–1981), relations between the government and the Copts deteriorated. Sadat’s emphasis on Egypt’s Islamic heritage alienated Christians, and his rapprochement with Islamist groups further strained ties. The 1971 Constitution declared Islam the state religion, Arabic the official language, and Sharia the primary source of legislation. Tensions escalated between Sadat and Pope Shenouda III, culminating in the pope’s exile and accusations that he sought to establish a “Coptic State” in Upper Egypt.
Sadat’s assassination in 1981 marked the beginning of Hosni Mubarak’s presidency. Pope Shenouda III was reinstated in 1985, and Mubarak used the Coptic Church as a liaison to Egypt’s Christian population. While Mubarak’s regime offered some protection to Christians, increasing terrorist attacks highlighted its failure to address their safety comprehensively. Notable incidents, such as the 2010 bombing of a Coptic church in Alexandria that killed 21 people, intensified public dissatisfaction.
Emerging Social Movements
By the 2000s, many Christians began distancing themselves from the Mubarak regime, participating in social movements like Kifaya (“Enough”) that sought political reform. The growing insecurity, coupled with the regime’s apathy toward Coptic concerns, drove new alliances among Christians advocating for change.
